Education, Learning, Leadership, Research, Technology
Informal Learning for Technical Leaders
Insights from an ethnographic research study for cognitive patterns of technical leaders in the workplace
Purpose
In this article, I aim to briefly introduce informal learning and share my findings from a research study conducted to understand optimal learning modes and familiar patterns of technical leaders in Information Technology departments of large business organizations.
The study aims to help policymakers, human resource executives, training departments, leadership development professionals, and technical leaders make informed decisions for learning alternatives in the corporate workplace.
Background
The research was based on the initial hypothesis of “practical (hands-on) informal learning is critical for technical leaders and this mode of learning more important than formal learning programs.” The reason I developed this hypothesis was based on my personal experience in the field. I am a technical leader and have experienced the benefits of informal learning in the workplace.
I wanted to test this hypothesis using a structured and rigorous approach, particularly using ethnographic case studies. I had the opportunity to access the ecosystem of multiple large business organizations funded by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology which also provided research compliance, guidance, and ethics clearance for the study.
I aim to provide methodology details in a separate article to keep this article in a reasonable size.
What is informal learning?
Based on the review of the established body of knowledge, in this section, I provide you with a condensed literature review on informal learning extracted from my Ph.D. dissertation.
This review can provide insights into theory and practice on the topic. There are many, however, similar definitions of informal learning in the literature. Some of the artifacts in the literature use alternative terms such as “informal education”, “incidental learning”, “workplace learning”, “vocational learning”, or “informal training”. All these terms are used to describe informal learning in this study.
An insightful point in the literature was from Boud, D. & Walker, D (1991). They informed me that learning from experience is a complex matter. How it happens depends on the learners, the task, and on the learning context. Little is generally controlled or readily controllable.
We know a great deal about learning in highly controlled settings where there is task analysis, a curriculum, a trainer, and support resources, but relatively little about learning in the messy reality of the workplace. This statement encouraged me to delve into the study, explore the mystery, and identify some common patterns.
I started reviewing Wain, K. (1987), who defined informal learning as being the truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills, and knowledge from daily experience and the educative influences and resources in his or her environment — from family and neighbors, from work and play, from the market place, the library, and the mass media.
Wain, K.(1987) concluded informal education as being any organizational activity outside the established formal system, whether operating separately or as an essential feature of some broader activity, that is intended to serve identifiable learning clientele and learning objectives.
In some artifacts in the literature, the term incidental learning is used in relation to or within the context of informal learning. We need to determine the distinction between “incidental learning” and “informal learning” to prevent any confusion or misconception. The clearest definition for this distinction is identified by Marsick and Watkins (1990) as follows:
Informal learning can be deliberately encouraged by an organisation, or it can take place despite an environment not highly conducive to learning. Incidental learning on the other hand, almost always takes place in everyday experience although people are not always conscious of it.
The most common definition of informal learning gathered and integrated from literature is that informal learning in the workplace includes learning methods, techniques, and processes that cannot be provided by formal education.
More specifically, informal learning can be defined as methods and techniques of learning in the workplace, such as communication among employees, team meetings, technical documentation, other printed materials, hands-on experience, trial and error, vendor support, and mentors at work.
Previous literature reviews provided sufficient evidence that graduates going to technical leadership roles directly from colleges did not meet the requirements of the business in relation to their knowledge, skills, and competencies. For example, as Billett, S. (1992) asserts, research into learning processes in informal or natural settings should become a priority for higher education in Australia.
As asserted by Dymock, D. & Gerber, R. (1999), there has been considerably less research emphasis on what has been described as ‘informal learning in the workplace and how this relates to formal learning.
A report developed by Western Australia Skills, Standards and Accreditation Board (1992) emphasized the importance of informal learning for the thought leaders, educators, policymakers, and evaluators in the field:
… It is accepted that occupational competence is achieved not only through formal education and training but also through prior learning such as informal on-the-job training, ongoing work experience and life experiences.
An exceptional research study on the corporate environment regarding informal and formal learning was by Dobbs, K. (2000). The study outlined that, the Education Development Center (EDC), an American research organization, released findings from a two-year study of corporate cultures across the United States of America (USA). It was found that 70 percent of what employees knew about the jobs they had learned informally from their colleagues rather than as a result of formal training.
Considering the outcome of this and other similar research, EDC has undertaken a further research study at McDonald’s, to investigate strategies for the integration of informal learning with formal staff development skills. The research suggests that many organizations fail to encourage informal learning amongst employees even though it may be the most significant learning opportunity employees will experience.
Much has been theorized about the process of informal learning; however, few studies have been done where researchers actually entered the organization to depict examples of this learning process, as emphasized by Maben-Crouch, C. L. (1997). This was a compelling point for me to undertake an ethnographic study as a native in the business organizations leveraging my relationships with the IT business executives and privileges provided by the funding organizations.
As Gleespen (1997) stated, previous studies have indicated that co-worker relationships could be critical resources for employees’ continuous learning, which was essential for effective performance. However, not all co-worker relationships were equally supportive of continuous learning.
Informal learning was believed to empower technical leaders. For example, Laverdure-Mcdougall, E. A. (1998) concluded that the participants all shared similar informal learning processes involving listening, observing, asking, and doing in the workplace. Through their informal learning experiences, the participants gained a sense of empowerment.
A new informal way of learning what is called “computer-mediated communication” during job activities is depicted in a Ph.D. study undertaken at the University of Toronto (Canada). The study has shown that the participants, in their various ways, developed new insights in instrumental, linguistic, and professional terms. Reflecting upon tacit routines led them to think about their practices from an unfamiliar point of view and, in some cases, to reframe certain habitual procedures. (Freire, M. M. 1998)
Stamps, D. (1998) delineates a report created from a study by EDC which sheds light on learning ecologies. In 1996, the Education Development Center (EDC), carried out a study of seven major manufacturing companies analyzing their learning ecologies. The study was designed to identify the traits of a ‘teaching firm’, which by EDCs definition, creates an environment in which teaching and learning are institutionally and culturally embedded in the organization.
The EDC report highlights that there are four dimensions in the learning process, pragmatic, intrapsychic, interpersonal, and cultural, and within these areas, formal and informal learning occurs. The report found that most training initiatives focused on the pragmatic level of training and that in the future more emphasis needed to be placed on how best to combine the informal and formal modes of training and to learn in the workplace.
Another frequently found keyword related to informal learning was “practice-based learning.” One of the prominent studies in this area was conducted by Ritchie, K. (1998).
Ritchie claims that continuing professional education (CPE) is more often than not interpreted in terms of formal, structured approaches to learning and skill development. Information CPE, the learning and development that occurs within the practice on a day-to-day basis, is largely unsystematic, and sometimes unintentional and incidental, but often integral to improved practice.
Changing work practices mean that more and more of the responsibility for CPE will rest on individuals and that informal CPE will, and should, provide a basis or starting point for more formal CPE. Ritchie’s paper suggests that by using informal CPE as a foundation on which to build more formal learning, the changing needs of professional practice and practitioners can be better accommodated.
“Real Life” learning seems to be another substitute for informal learning by some researchers. In one of the studies by Falk, I. (1998), the analyses presented in his paper tend to support the view that the power of the different kinds of learning associated with ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ learning is counterproductive to a lifelong learning regime.
There was a great amount of literature on Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Education. Most of the literature in this area was based on learning at home, in social life, and in the apprenticeship programs.
As reported by (Tuijnman, A. 1999), the International Academy of Education (IAE) established a Task Force in 1996 to identify shortcomings in the knowledge base on lifelong learning. The Task Force aimed to analyze the various meanings of concepts such as lifelong education and lifelong learning, to identify the major difficulties in the implementation of lifelong learning policy and practice, especially in developed countries, and to suggest a research agenda for lifelong learning, particularly adult education and informal learning in the workplace.
An overseas phenomenological research study by (Lin, Y. A. 1998) highlights that Learning is a universal experience in human society, whereas learning while employed is only experienced by adult workers. Lin, in this study, identified that facing an increasingly competitive job market, employees engaged in learning in order to face challenges and to meet increasing requests to update knowledge and skills in the workplace.
Lin’s study in Taiwan shows that workers are eager to seek additional learning opportunities to enhance their knowledge and skills in order to survive in their workplaces. This is especially true of employees who work in public organizations in Taiwan.
Public employees push themselves to learn, but based on governmental regulations, they face the dilemma of possibly losing their salary and stable jobs when they consider returning to an educational institution for continuing education. This makes public employees’ continuing learning experiences in Taiwan a unique phenomenon.
A contributing study on turning experience into learning is developed by Boud, D, J, Keogh, R, and Walker, D (1985). They emphasize different approaches to promoting reflections as using autobiography and other forms of writing, debriefing of groups, and use of computer-generated guides with a cooperative inquiry.
Hager, P. (1998) informs that traditionally, dominant ideas on education have placed a higher value on formal learning than on informal learning. Recognition of informal learning, therefore, poses challenges to this traditional view and to policymakers and researchers.
The assessment process has been found to be an issue in relation to informal learning while it is a built-in component of formal education. As stated by Rumsey, D., Cooper, B., and Haines, M. (1993), assessment processes are a little more constrained.
Industries may provide considerable guidance on assessment in their standards. For example, industry-leading technology organizations such as Microsoft, Cisco, Google, IBM, Oracle, and others set objectives for their certification programs. However, in some settings, when certification is out of the question, then finding objective assessment methods is difficult.
In this case, performance, competency, or in other words meeting the work requirement seem to be legitimate assessment techniques. This issue needs to be further analyzed and requires further clarification.
Mentoring is one of the most frequently used concepts in literature in relation to the importance of informal learning in the workplace.
The benefit of mentoring as a strategy to improve workplace learning has been proclaimed in leadership, business, learning, educational, and cognitive science research for the three two decades.
A study conducted at the University of British Columbia (Darwin, A. M., 1999) has shown that irrespective of age, gender, or status within their organizations, two-thirds of the respondents reported having mentors. Mentors were most often older than their proteges, and more than half reported that their mentors were also their bosses.
Three-fifths of these mentors were men. Statistical tests of differences on various socio-demographic variables and the “Dimensions of Mentoring Inventory” highlighted differences between the perceptions of women and men proteges about their mentors.
How I defined informal learning for this study
In essence, informal learning in the workplace is learning methods, techniques, and processes that formal education cannot provide.
More specifically, I defined informal learning in this study as methods and techniques of learning in the workplace, such as communication amongst technical leaders, staff meetings, technical documentation, hands-on experience, trial and error, vendor support, and mentors at work.
Informal learning can be seen as work and experience-based. This means that, in simple terms, informal learning takes place at work rather than at school.
As suggested by Resnick, L. B. (1987), learning is not just about interactions between people but also the interactions between people and their environment. It is not physically possible to create this environment in schools or formal learning environments in the workplace context.
As Boud, D. & Walker, D (1991) state, the issue of how people learn after they have completed their formal training has not been well researched. This was my main reason for conducting this ethnographic study and contributing to the body of knowledge.
It is necessary to stress that other forms of informal learning which take place outside of the workplace context, such as informal learning at home, in the family, in schools, or in the community, are beyond the scope of my study and are excluded on purpose.
After this condensed background on literature, let me introduce the research framework.
Study Framework
To obtain first-hand experience and insights from the research participants (Technical IT Leaders), I asked the following six questions in the PhD thesis:
Question 1: How do you learn best for your profession in your organisation?
Question 2: Do you believe informal discussion sessions, technical briefings or meetings in the workplace help you perform your role better as a technical leader in your organisation? Can you confirm whether these informal activities contribute to your learning?
Question 3: Do you have mentors at work or out of work that you contact for your professional matters? If so, do you believe the contribution of mentors to your job performance?
Question 4: What are your expectations from your followers, peers, executives regarding your learning process in the workplace?
Question 5: What is the contribution of external technical consultants, hardware, software, and services vendors on your learning?
Question 6: What are the key factors that impacting your learning to be a well-performing technical leader in your organisation?
Let me share my findings obtained from 50 respondents.
How do technical leaders learn best?
Responses to the first question, "How do you learn best for your profession in your organization?” were the most helpful questions to obtain how these technical leaders learn. The responses to this question have provided factual findings in relation to the learning patterns of technical leaders.
This question provided a solid essence to substantiate the initial hypothesis: "Workplace informal learning for technical leaders is more effective than formal education in gaining specific technical knowledge, skills, and competencies.”
There was only one respondent who mentioned short courses as being the best learning method. None of the respondents mentioned tertiary courses, such as a degree or diploma, as their best learning method.
The analyses of data collected from the respondents in relation to this question provide the following seven key points:
· Self-study
· Problem-solving
· Interaction and discussions with colleagues
· Hands-on
· Preparing for industry-level exams
· Speaking in industry conferences
· Observations of other technical leaders
· Combination of self-study with using learning applications
These points are mentioned and repeated by the majority of respondents in relation to their best learning methods. When we closely look at these items, it is quite clear to understand that all of them are directly related to informal learning.
Let me provide further details on these frequently mentioned items that had an important impact on the learning of technical leaders in the workplace.
Self Study
From the data analysis, I found that one of the best learning methods for technical professionals is self-study. Almost all respondents reported that they undertook some kind of self-study to further improve their skills and keep up-to-date with rapidly changing technology. Nearly 90% of respondents reported that self-study was one of the preferred and essential methods to survive and thrive in this technology-driven environment.
One of the factors causing them to be bound so much to self-study was identified to be the cost factor for instructor-led courses or other learning methods. The input provided by respondents showed that IT courses, especially some specialized ones, were extremely expensive, and it was hard for individuals to afford to undertake them unless their organizations paid the course fees for them.
Some believed that there were so many IT courses to be undertaken in relation to their daily tasks it would cost their company more than their salary and perhaps more than the profit they may have made for the company. Therefore, they believed there was no way for the company to pay for all these courses on their behalf. Since they could not afford to pay the cost of these expensive courses themselves, the only solution to close the gap was to continue with self-study.
Nevertheless, they believed that, from time to time, there was a need to learn, comprehend, and gain skills for some specialized topics that were unavailable via self-study. In this case, they looked for alternatives to self-study, which was mostly either a publicly offered short course or a customized course paid for by the company or perhaps by the vendors occasionally promoting their products.
From these points, I understood that self-study was a primary and vital part of workplace learning for technical leaders. However, there were exceptions, such as special skill requirements, which were almost impossible to acquire through self-study. This proven point was reflected in the research paper.
Problem-Solving
80% of respondents disclosed that they learned better while solving real-life technical problems in their workplace in research settings. For example, fixing a crashed server, building a new application, integrating a system, re-configuring an incorrectly configured component of an operating system, recovering a critical business system from a disaster, and so on.
This kind of technical problem-solving at work was different from what was learned in academic environments and considered purely a component of informal learning.
Respondents highlighted that problem-solving through formal learning was far from being real-life situations since, during formal learning, as the best scenario, they used only simulations and limited settings that imitated real-life situations.
A limited number of academic environments enabled real-life simulation settings. They were exceptionally well-funded institutes. Respondents pointed out that most of the academic curriculum provided problem-solving techniques in a theoretical manner.
The majority of respondents believe that formal learning approaches toward problem-solving were not natural and, therefore, not satisfactory to obtaining the necessary skills for their technical leadership roles.
Interaction and discussions with colleagues
Interaction and discussions with colleagues (subordinates, peers, superiors) were an important and inevitable part of learning for technical leaders.
90% of respondents said that one way they learned was via discussions and interactions with their colleagues through projects and initiatives at work.
Some named these interactions and discussions as team-based learning. Learning in a team was found invaluable. Interestingly, a respondent revealed that colleagues shared ideas, their mistakes in the past, and their knowledge and skills in her team since her executive team leader encouraged them to do so.
This approach helped the team members to learn new things and acquire new skills continuously in collaboration. However, I observed that this is not the case in all teams since there was some competition amongst the team members, and they hesitated to share their knowledge and skills, and refrained from revealing their weaknesses.
I observed that the team-based structure was becoming more common in technology organizations due to the complexity and frequent obsolescence of knowledge and information.
For technology-based organizations to survive and thrive, many people's cognitive abilities must join together to create technically sophisticated products and services. The interpersonal processes in group decision-making are as crucial as the content.
I observed that managers and executives in IT departments pay a lot of attention to team-based learning and deliberately encourage technical leaders to engage in these interactions. The executive team makes team-based interactions and learning as part of the selection criteria for job entry or even for promotions.
As Lee, S. L. (1997) emphasized, organizational learning was collective learning. The emphasis was on learning in teams and sharing newfound knowledge with interested parties in collaboration.
More interestingly, as reported by Dobbs, K. (2000), using the statistical figures generated by Education Development Center (EDC), 70% of what employees knew about the jobs they had learned informally from their colleagues rather than as a result of formal training.
Practical and Hands-on Learning
All participants agreed that a hands-on approach was essential in the technical leadership learning process in the IT industry.
I confirmed that anyone undertaking IT-related technical leadership tasks and duties needed plenty of hands-on skills. This was obviously an essential way of learning in IT departments for technical leaders.
Hands-on learning was one of the unique components of informal earning, and it was very much specific to the environment.
A majority of respondents agreed that gaining hands-on skills and learning practical aspects of their technical leadership jobs were not possible to acquire through formal learning programs.
I also experienced that the nature of the work in IT departments requires a very practical hands-on approach. Therefore, some corporate vendors make hands-on experience compulsory for their certification programs. For example, CISCO makes the hands-on experience part of the examination process for the popular well-respected CCIE certification program.
Preparing for vendor-approved industry-level certifications
Respondents admit that preparing for industry-level certification plays quite an important role in their learning process.
Industry certification programs have predefined exam objectives that map to the industry-level skills and competencies prepared by large corporate organizations such as Microsoft, Cisco, IBM, Apple, Google, HP, Citrix, and so on.
Over the last three decades, these vendor-specific industry-level certifications are becoming more significant. They are well supported and promoted in the industry. For example, Cisco defines its certification program as a “tangible proof of achievement.”
As a holder of several industry-level certifications, I experienced and observed that while technical leaders were preparing for the specific exam objectives, they learned a lot about certain topics. More importantly, then, the majority of topics learned for certification purposes were able to be directly applied to current work requirements.
In my observations, some new graduates with very limited experience pursuing these industry certification exams failed until they acquired practical experience at work.
On the other hand, ironically, I also observed that some technical professionals with extremely hands-on experience but limited conceptual skills also failed these exams. This was because these vendors expected the candidates to understand the concepts thoroughly in relation to their products and systems and professionally supported their customers.
After delving into details, I categorized the industry-level certification as being an informal learning component rather than formal in the research paper. The primary reason was that most certification holders prepared for the examinations while working via hands-on experience, self-study, and discussions with their colleagues at work.
Observations in projects, initiatives, and work engagements
Not surprisingly, most respondents mentioned the importance of observations as critical learning factors in the workplace.
It was evident that a great deal of hands-on learning was achieved via observations in projects, initiatives, and work engagements. These activities took place in data-centres, development labs, or integration labs in the IT departments. This was recorded in the research paper as a common pattern in the IT industry.
Arguably, even though observations can be part of the formal education process, in this context, this is a typical informal learning component and cannot be expected to be acquired through formal education programs since the settings are unique to the IT workplace.
Combination of self-study with computer-based learning applications
Due to the nature of the IT industry, there are abundant computer-based learning applications offering inexpensive and efficient learning options to these groups of technical leaders. Therefore, a great majority of respondents were using these kinds of materials to extend their knowledge and improve their practical technical skills. This has been identified in the research paper as a favourite learning model for technical leaders. Exceptionally, some respondents believed that their best learning methods were not an option for them. They wanted to learn selectively.
Speaking at industry conferences
There were a number of participants highlighting the importance of speaking at international industry conferences. The main premise was preparing for these conferences, which forced them deep dive into the technical topics to give their audience a valuable experience. Most of the respondents were senior technical leaders socially eminent in their fields. They also mentioned the specialist level of knowledge they gained from networking with the other eminent keynote and conference speakers.
Conclusive Findings
The following diagram shows the percentages of responses provided to the question of how the technical leaders learn best with.
The chart highlights that all respondents learn hands-on in this environment due to the nature of the technical work they perform. Then comes self-study. However, it is quite interesting to see that over 50% of responses mention the seven types of learning methods, such as:
· Self-study
· Problem-solving
· Interaction and discussions with colleagues
· Hands-on
· Preparing for industry-level exams
. Speaking in industry conferences
· Observations in projects
· Combination of self-study with computer-based learning applications
I understand that these 7 elements are typically and overtly components of informal learning in the IT departments. Some of these items, such as hands-on learning, interaction and discussion with colleagues, observations, and self-study, are essential to survive and thrive in IT environments. The other components, such as preparing for industry-level exams, seem to be desirable to perform better.
From these findings and perspectives, the study concluded that informal learning was desirable and essential for technical leaders in IT organisations.
In the research settings, especially during the pilot study, numerous professionals mentioned the importance of mentors in learning. Mentoring has been considered to be an important component of informal learning in the workplace. I identified that all IT departments in corporate environments implement a mentoring process. For example some of these organisations assign a mentor to a new starter from the first day and the managers liaise with mentors in relation to the professional development of the new starter. In fact, more experienced leaders have multiple mentors. As a result, the findings showed that over 90% of the participants have some kind of mentors.
There were 3 main points identified in relation to the role of a mentor.
They are:
1) Mentors are necessary for technical problem solving and advice,
2) Mentors are very useful for networking in the company and in the overall It industry,
3) Mentors are generally the last resort when you need an external opinion during the decision-making period.
Considering these emerged patterns, it was possible to interpret that mentors were necessary for the IT workplace, and they contributed to the learning process of the technical leaders.
To further elaborate on the benefits, some respondents believed that having mentors were extremely useful and even crucial. Some respondents believed that the only way to network in large organizations and in the IT industry was to have mentors. They confirmed that they learned a lot from their mentors to survive and thrive in IT organizations.
When looked at the characteristics of mentors in these technology focussed business organizations, I observed that mentors were generally sociable, experienced, and most of the time, mature age people. They liked sharing their knowledge and skills with other people. They collaborated intensely and provided the necessary guidance for whom they were mentoring.
However, exceptionally, a few more experienced professionals believed that mentors were final resources during the decision-making time. They rarely ask for advice from their mentors. Interestingly enough, none of the respondents denied the importance of mentors in the IT industry. This was a significant finding of the study.
The overall response is all participants find informal discussion sessions, technical briefings and meetings to be very useful and necessary for their learning in this industry.
The following key points have been identified concerning the use of informal discussions, technical briefings, and technical meetings:
· Allow for large updates to multiple people in a short period of time
· Allow sharing ideas, opinions and experiences
· Not as confronting and people are more receptive to information and asking questions
· Open the communication channels, which are important to involve all relevant parties that result in the dissemination of technical knowledge among team members.
Even the best and highest-ranking technical leaders took advantage of informal discussion sessions, technical briefings, and technical meetings in governance committees.
All IT departments in large business corporations have strong vendor relationships. This included hardware vendors, software/system vendors, service vendors or 3 of them together. For example, all IT departments have a hardware support contract with major hardware companies. Respondents confirmed that these companies or corporations played an important role in the learning process of technical leaders.
Final Results
To summarise the final results, the following table clearly depicts the findings on the impact of informal learning on technical leaders.
The following diagram, created from this table, was recorded in the research paper as a common pattern.
Main Academic Source of Content
Extract from one of the learning dissertations of Dr Mehmet Yildiz [a PhD Thesis] as part of his professional doctoral studies hosted in RMIT University (Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology) Academic Library in Bundoora, Victoria.
MLA, APA, and Chicago Trabian Citation: Yildiz, Mehmet. “Discovering and Evaluating the Roles of Formal and Informal Learning for the I/T Professionals of Two Large Corporate Organisations .” Thesis (Ph.D.) — RMIT University, 2003., 2003. Print”.
Thank you for reading my perspectives.
Related Articles
If you find this article valuable, you may check out other relevant articles in this leadership learning research series.
References on Informal Learning
These selected books focus on the theory and practice of informal learning from different perspectives. Upon request, I can provide a comprehensive research bibliography to master's and doctorate students undertaking research in this field.
Informal Learning in Organizations: How to Create a Continuous Learning Culture
Informal Learning: Rediscovering the Natural Pathways That Inspire Innovation and Performance
Informal Learning in the Workplace: Unmasking Human Resource Development
Informal Learning at Work (New Perspectives on Learning and Instruction)
Informal Learning at Work: How to Boost Performance in Tough Times
Out of the Ruins: The Emergence of Radical Informal Learning Spaces
Disclaimer: Please note that this post does not include professional advice. I shared my reviews, observations, experience, and perspectives only for information.
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