Why did Germany, which contributed Kant to the world, also produce Hitler?
Why Germany?
For more than half a century, when the end of World War II is commemorated every year, people always have to deeply reflect on this unprecedented human catastrophe; an inexorable question is also one of the questions that is raised repeatedly, How could a nation as ancient and excellent as Germany, which has contributed so many scientists, philosophers, writers, artists, etc. to humanity such as Kant, Goethe, Beethoven, Thomas Mann and other cultural giants, have such a great reputation? Hitler, the devil incarnate, caused almost all of Europe to fall into tragic dire straits?
This is admittedly a European issue in particular, but there are some deep-seated issues that may and should have considerable lessons for anyone with a conscience. So let us put Hitler aside for a moment and look at the history of the German nation.
▌The day before the German nation
When the Germanic nation was quite active on the European international stage in the 19th century, and Prussia was even competing with great powers such as Britain, France, Austria, and Russia, Engels made a profound analysis of the characteristics of this nation when it was still in its formative period.
Speaking of their personal talents and bravery, their love of freedom and their “democratic instinct” to regard all public matters as their own business. It has a decisive “vitality” and “imagination” that can make the dying Roman world young.
In the second half of the Middle Ages, the Germanic nation became the “master” scattered throughout the hinterland of Western Europe. Although the loose “Germanic Holy Roman Empire” split into numerous states, the special “nationalism” they formed due to their common nationality was formed under these conditions.
“Nationalism” is first of all an external sentiment. Seeing that the Anglo-Saxons and France, which have a lot of influence in Europe, have taken the lead in establishing independent and sovereign nation-states, even some “peripheral” small countries such as the Netherlands have also established their own Only the Germanic nation (and of course Italy) has been unable to become a veritable “nation-state” due to various reasons. The “Thirty Years’ War” in the 17th century drew boundaries for many participating countries, but Germany was even more divided. .
Therefore, national reunification has become the top political long-cherished wish of the entire nation, and has become a heartache of the German people, so much so that the great poet Goethe lamented:
“Germany? Where is she? How can we find her in its entirety? The Germans are learned, but this country is something else.”
While the French were gestating and launching the revolution, the Germans were using their brains to build a “philosophical system.” When the news of the revolution came, the Germans were suddenly excited. But soon Napoleon’s army came to Jena and Berlin.
Kant’s student Fichte’s enthusiasm for the French Revolution immediately turned into a protest against Napoleon. He published 13 consecutive “Speeches to the German Nation”, shouting for the “revival of Germany”. He called on Germans to be “deserving Germans”, to “strengthen themselves” and take on “national responsibility”. He said that the German nation has been the best nation since ancient times, and its culture is outstanding. Even its language, Although some people ridiculed it as “weird and weird”, it is also the most outstanding human language. He proposed to spread the German spirit to other places…
Fichte was a philosopher, but these speeches seemed to be passionate nationalist declarations that reflected and conformed to the national aspirations of Germany at that time in a language that everyone could understand.
In the mid-19th century, a chain-reaction “revolution” took place across Europe and ended in failure. The revolution on German soil also failed. The goal of this revolution is just like the lyrics of the popular “Lied of the Germans” written by the poet Hoffmann von Falersleben in 1840: “Unity and law and freedom / For the German fatherland !”
During the “Cold War” of the 20th century, Germany was divided into two, each being an “enemy country.” A very eye-catching road sign was erected at the east-west junction of the ancient northern city of Lübeck on the side of Federal Germany. The same words were written on both sides of the road sign. Unity and law and freedom/For the German fatherland!”
▌The yesterday of the German nation
Here, we must talk about the particularities of German (or Germanic) nationalism. Judging from what has been said above, one thing is very obvious, that is, the nationalism of the German nation permeates the society of all states, covering almost all strata, upper, middle and lower classes.
The upper class, especially the ruling class, pursues the concentration of power internally and promotes militarism externally. “Nationalism” is particularly thorough.
After participating in the “Anti-French Alliance” to defeat Napoleon, his national ambitions expanded rapidly. Through the Prussian, Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, he took advantage of the situation to unify Germany for the first time and established the German Empire with Bismarck as prime minister. It is true that Bismarck’s dictatorship was constantly sharply criticized by Marx, Engels and the Social Democratic Party. However, he achieved “unification”, created an “imperial constitution”, and also launched what was called an advanced “welfare policy” at the time and a military-based industry. Industrialization made Germany one of the great powers, but it satisfied the nation’s pride to a considerable extent.
Therefore, in the early stage before the outbreak of the First World War, Wilhelm II’s expansionist “world policy” won widespread “support” across the country. Even the Social Democratic Party, which represented the advanced forces at that time, in the unanimous war enthusiasm, also Dare not or cannot say anything more.
However, the so-called “popular nationalism” at the lower levels manifests itself in extreme fanaticism and irrationality. It can move forward courageously to the point of disregarding everything in a favorable climate, but can manifest itself as pessimism and despair in other climates.
In World War I, the enthusiasm of German soldiers in the early stage and the depression of the German army’s successive defeats in the later stage formed two extremes of the same nationalism.
The German nation should have learned a lesson after its defeat in the First World War and realized that once the upper-level autocratic domestic and external militaristic nationalism and the lower-level fanaticism, restlessness, and irrational nationalism are combined under specific circumstances, they will interact with each other. Agitation will have disastrous consequences. But after World War I, Germany did not reflect enough.
The German Weimar Republic from 1919 to 1933, when Hitler came to power, was a weak “republic” with inherent deficiencies and acquired imbalances. The very heavy war reparations and other provisions at that time overwhelmed the exhausted German people and aggravated their national sentiment.
As a result, nationalism turned from disappointment to a desire for a “savior” totalitarian figure to relieve the crisis. Coupled with the vague and primitive “socialism”, it roamed and floated in society without control and guidance, so it became Hitler’s The “National Socialism” (i.e. “Nazi”) provided the soil in which it could breed.
Hitler once again succeeded in combining the dictatorship and expansionary nationalism of the upper class with the ignorant and irrational nationalism of the lower class, going even further than before, pushing nationalism into extremely reactionary and cruel racism.
Accompanied by the uniform “Hi, Hitler!” were wars, wars, and inhumane massacres; and the outcome, as everyone can see, brought unprecedented disaster to mankind, and his personal reputation was ruined.
Therefore, there is no “break” between the two world wars, and there is no essential difference in terms of German nationalism; as far as the war is concerned, there are three differences: first, the “arrangement and combination” of the participating countries are different; second, the first world war The Great War was a struggle between the great powers, while the Second World War was a crusade against Hitler’s Nazism and the complete crushing of it; third, the results were different. In the First World War, due to too many weaknesses in the “League of Nations”, there were basically no problems left over after the war. Solved, World War II completely ended Hitler’s rule.
As the victorious countries, the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, and France learned from the experiences and lessons learned after World War I and implemented “occupation” of the defeated Germany. On the one hand, they strengthened “control” and on the other hand, they also supported its development. And Germany’s history thus had a new starting point.
The “Four-Power Occupation” divided Germany into two parts. The American, British and French occupied areas were subsequently merged to form the “Federal Republic of Germany” which implemented a modern market economy and a democratic and constitutional capitalist system. The eastern half of the Soviet occupied area became a Soviet-style socialist system. of the “German Democratic Republic”. It was not until the disintegration of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe 40 years later that the people of the Democratic Republic of Germany tore down the “Berlin Wall” in one fell swoop and flocked to the Federal Republic of Germany, rapidly promoting the reunification process between the two Germanys. Finally, according to the “Basic Law” of the “Federal Republic of Germany”, several states of the Democratic Republic of Germany were merged. Unified into the Federal Republic of Germany.
This period of contemporary history in the past ten years is already well known to everyone. The important thing is that regardless of the many troubles after reunification due to the huge gap between East and West in all aspects for decades, Germany’s long-cherished national wish has finally been realized.
▌Today of the German nation
Hitler’s complete destruction 60 years ago brought an unprecedented opportunity for new life to the German nation. The “Holy Roman Empire” with numerous small states in the Middle Ages, the German Empire under Bismarck, the Weimar Republic after the Treaty of Versailles, and Hitler’s “Third Reich” have all become relics of history.
The Germans woke up from their long nightmare, constantly reflected on the past, and began to liquidate the fanatical nationalism that caused serious disasters to mankind, and even developed into the extremely evil Nazism, rewriting history.
The reason why the Germans are able to do this is due to both domestic and international factors, both of which are decisive.
From a domestic perspective, normal political order was quickly restored in the Federal Republic of Germany after the war. The humanistic traditions inherited from the religious revolution and the Enlightenment period were brought into play. The party politics that Hitler had declared “illegal” was rebuilt. Nazi rule Anti-Nazi forces, including political activists and intellectuals, who had fled abroad in the early days, returned one after another.
Brandt’s “New Eastern Policy” in the 1960s and 1970s was a critical period. Several congresses of the Social Democratic Party clearly proposed to draw a clear line with the Nazis and declared that the German democratic forces should inherit and carry forward the European legacy. The tradition of rational liberalism and humanitarianism achieves reconciliation with other nations and ends confrontation.
After Brandt became Federal Chancellor, he immediately visited European countries that had suffered brutal persecution and massacre by the Nazis. In Poland in December 1970, before signing the Polish-German Cooperation Treaty, he first went to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier and the Warsaw Jewish Quarter in Warsaw, laid a wreath in each, and knelt down on the cold ground to express his condolences. This move shocked the whole world and was called a “historic kneel” by world public opinion. It was not only a confession, but also marked the German people’s complete break with the past and their return to rationalism from fanatical nationalism.
In 1975, Federal Chancellor Schmidt said that the end of World War II on May 8 was the day to “get rid of the violent Nazi rule.” This spirit of reflection has been carried out. In the days when the two Germanys were reunified, Chancellor Kohl at the time repeatedly reiterated Thomas Mann’s famous saying about German expansionism: “It should be the Germany of Europe, not Germany.” Europe!” and emphasized again and again: a unified Germany will remain in the Western Alliance (referring to the North Atlantic Treaty) and the European Union.
In the days to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the end of World War II, Germany held a variety of commemorative activities across the country with great fanfare. When paying tribute to the Weimar concentration camp, Schroeder said: “Although history cannot be undone, we can learn a lot from Germany’s most shameful page of history… This is Germany’s moral and political responsibility.” These words represent the German people. social consensus.
Saying goodbye to those long years of dusty conscience and suppressed rationality, the excellent side of the German nation has been revealed. The continuous culture of reflection formed since the end of World War II has kept the German people vigilant against any signs of neo-Nazis.
The Germans can do this because international conditions cannot be ignored. The situation after World War II was very different from that between the two wars.
The most important are two. First, the initial “occupation period” and related international treaties externally ensured that the Federal Republic of Germany implemented a market economy and a constitutional democratic system; second, the trend of European unity reflected the influence of the newly born Germany. The desire of Western European countries and people within the United States to replace confrontation with reconciliation and cooperation has become the mainstream political trend.
As a defeated country, Germany was eager to get rid of its “isolation” state, and the call for integration into Europe was very common. Adenauer followed the trend of the new era and accepted the “Coal and Steel Condominium” plan initiated by France, thus starting the path from the “European Community” to today’s “European Union”.
Special mention should be made here of the “national reconciliation” between Germany and France, which was once known as the “feud”, because it has typical significance.
With the foresight of statesmen, de Gaulle of France and Adenauer of the Federal Republic of Germany put aside their past differences and held their first meeting on September 14, 1958, when the “European Community” was established. They solemnly declared to the world that they would replace “antagonism” with “cooperation”. He also said that Franco-German cooperation is “the foundation of European construction.” Since then, meetings between the leaders of the two countries have become habitual and “institutionalized.”
As the situation develops and needs, such meetings are held frequently, and successive leaders of the two countries have held such high-level contacts. Important ones include the talks between Pompidou and Brandt in 1972, the talks between Giscard and Schmidt in 1974, the talks between Mitterrand and Kohl in 1982, etc., not to mention the talks between Chirac and Chirac in recent years. Frequent talks with Schroeder.
These Franco-German talks certainly reflect the in-depth development of state-to-state relations along the path of “reconciliation and cooperation,” but they also reflect the overall situation in which European nationalism, especially ethnic antagonism, tends to dissolve.
Sixty years have passed, times have changed, and the world has embarked on a process of “globalization.” The unique national character of Germany is often mentioned as a well-intentioned topic of conversation, but it has completely bid farewell to the past; those excellent traditions of the German nation, including the ancient and original national characteristics mentioned by Engels at the beginning, are still functioning in the new era. .
A nation known as a philosophical nation is a nation that is good at reflection. Today, Germany has long been a member of Europe, and the countries and people who were once harmed by the Nazis no longer view it as they used to.
Former German Prime Minister Schroeder said at a commemoration event that people who have the courage to criticize themselves can win friends. It can be said that reflective culture has become a new tradition of this nation.
Also in 1978, Habermas invited 50 intellectuals to write an article titled “The Current Situation of Intellectuals.” One point generally mentioned in the article was that the development of German democratic consciousness had been troubled by “historical baggage.”
Today, it feels fortunate to have finally shed this “historical baggage” and emerged from an era of rampant nationalism that lasted nearly a century until 60 years ago.