Puerto Rico: From Spanish Colony to US Commonwealth
Before European contact, Puerto Rico was inhabited by the Taíno people — an Arawakan-speaking population that had migrated from South America.
Their society was organised into cacicazgos (chiefdoms), each governed by a cacique (chief).
Their culture was rich in oral traditions, religious ceremonies, and artistic expressions, and they were skilled farmers, fishermen, and craftsmen, known for their elaborate ceremonial plazas and ball courts.
The Taíno also had a deep connection with their environment, which was reflected in their mythology and spiritual practices.
They venerated various deities, with a cosmology that integrated their understanding of nature, astronomy, and the cycle of life.
Their societal structure was communal, with a strong emphasis on kinship and cooperative living.
However, the trajectory of Puerto Rico’s history took a dramatic turn with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1493, during his second voyage to the “New World”.
This marked the beginning of European interest in the island, which Columbus named San Juan Bautista.
The Spanish colonisers, driven by their quest for gold and other resources, quickly began imposing their authority over the island, establishing Caparra as the first Spanish settlement (later relocated to San Juan due to its strategic harbour), and introducing new crops, including sugar cane, and a plantation economy that would dominate the island’s landscape.
It was also the beginning of an era characterised by the imposition of Spanish culture, language, and religion, with Spanish colonial administration restructuring the island’s socio-political landscape, the introduction of European feudal-like systems and the transformation of the economy to suit colonial interests.
The impact of colonisation on the Taíno population was catastrophic.
They suffered from forced labour, diseases brought by the Europeans, and violent confrontations.
The Spanish encomienda system, which granted colonists the right to demand labour from the indigenous people, led to widespread exploitation and suffering.
As a result, the Taíno population rapidly declined — with the decline so severe that, for the Spanish, it also became necessary to import African slaves.
This laid the foundation for the multi-ethnic society that we now see in Puerto Rico today.
The Grito de Lares and Political Awakening
Following around four centuries of Spanish colonisation, which had drastically reshaped Puerto Rico’s societies, the 19th century ushered in a period of awakening and resistance.
Marked by a growing consciousness among Puerto Ricans about their distinct identity and the oppressive nature of colonial rule, central to this awakening was the Grito de Lares of 1868 — a seminal event in Puerto Rican history.
Inspired by burgeoning nationalist sentiments and the oppressive conditions under Spanish rule, a group of Puerto Ricans, led by figures that included Ramón Emeterio Betances and Segundo Ruiz Belvis, orchestrated a rebellion, with the aim of declaring the island’s independence from Spain.
This audacious uprising was the culmination of years of growing unrest, fuelled by the harsh realities of colonial exploitation, forced labour, and the negation of political rights.
On the 23rd of September 1868, the revolutionaries, comprising a diverse coalition of farmers, labourers, and slaves, proclaimed the establishment of the Republic of Puerto Rico in the town of Lares.
They raised the flag of the Republic — a symbol of their desire for sovereignty and freedom, and although the rebellion was swiftly quashed by Spanish forces, the Grito de Lares left an important mark on Puerto Rico’s collective consciousness.
It was a bold assertion of the island’s right to self-determination and a clear rejection of colonial subjugation.
The latter part of the 19th century then saw Puerto Ricans increasingly demanding greater civil liberties and autonomy under Spanish rule.
Intellectuals and activists, drawing inspiration from the Grito de Lares, continued to advocate for the island’s rights and cultural identity.
It was a period that also witnessed significant cultural and intellectual development — a new Puerto Rican identity was emerging, one that embraced its unique blend of Taíno, African, and Spanish influences.
Literature, music, and art began reflecting a consciousness that was distinctly Puerto Rican, celebrating the island’s heritage while articulating its aspirations for a future free from colonial domination.
As the century waned, the quest for political and cultural autonomy gained momentum, with the Spanish government, in response to the growing pressure, enacting several reforms aimed at placating the restive population.
These reforms included the expansion of political and administrative rights and a degree of self-governance, signalling a reluctant acknowledgment of Puerto Rican aspirations.
However, these changes were not enough to quell the Puerto Rican desire for a more significant role in determining their own destiny.
Americanisation and the Jones Act
The conclusion of the Spanish-American War in 1898 — a brief but pivotal conflict between the United States and Spain, which had culminated in the Treaty of Paris — saw Spain cede Puerto Rico to the United States, marking the end of Spanish colonial rule there and the beginning of American governance.
The onset of American rule brought with it concerted efforts to reshape Puerto Rican society in the image of the United States.
This process, often referred to as “Americanisation,” involved a range of policies and initiatives aimed at integrating Puerto Rico into the American political and economic system.
One of the most significant legislative acts during this period was the Jones Act of 1917. This extended U.S. citizenship to the inhabitants of Puerto Rico — a move that was both welcomed and viewed with scepticism by Puerto Ricans.
While citizenship offered new rights and opportunities, it also imposed new obligations, including military service, which became particularly poignant during World War I.
The “Americanisation” efforts also went beyond legal and political changes, permeating cultural and educational spheres as well.
The U.S. government, for example, sought to instil American values and practices, promoting the use of English over Spanish in public schools and government offices.
This linguistic shift was met with resistance, as many Puerto Ricans again viewed it as an assault on their cultural identity and heritage.
The imposition of a new educational curriculum, emphasising U.S. history and ideals, similarly fuelled concerns about cultural erosion.
Economically, the United States also reoriented Puerto Rico’s agricultural sector, focusing on cash crops for export, particularly sugar.
This shift bolstered Puerto Rico’s economy in the short term but also deepened its dependence on the U.S. market and large American-owned corporations.
Such economic changes, while modernising the island’s infrastructure and boosting production, also exacerbated social inequalities and left the local economy vulnerable to external fluctuations.
The Foraker Act of 1900 and the subsequent Jones-Shafroth Act of 1917 also established a civilian government in Puerto Rico, but with significant limitations.
These acts vested executive power in a governor appointed by the President of the United States and created a bicameral legislature with only one house elected by the people of Puerto Rico.
This arrangement underscored the limited nature of Puerto Rican self-governance and raised questions about the island’s autonomy and the true extent of its integration into the American political framework.
Alongside the political and economic changes, the cultural and social impact of Americanisation was profound, sparking debates about Puerto Rican identity and its place in the world.
On the one hand, the influence of American culture, education, and language brought about a degree of modernisation and global connectivity.
On the other hand, it challenged and sometimes clashed with Puerto Rico’s own rich cultural traditions and sense of national identity.
As Puerto Rico navigated the early decades of the 20th century, these challenges laid the groundwork for the evolving debate over its status and relationship with the United States.
The push and pull between assimilation and preservation of cultural identity, between economic dependency and the quest for self-sufficiency, continued to shape Puerto Rican society.
Commonwealth Status and Political Debate
The establishment of Commonwealth status for Puerto Rico in 1952 marked a new chapter in the island’s complex relationship with the United States.
Developing from the political and cultural shifts of the early 20th century, it represented a significant reconfiguration of Puerto Rico’s political status.
And while the arrangement offered a degree of autonomy, it was a nuanced and often contested solution to the question of Puerto Rico’s relationship with the United States.
Under its new Commonwealth status, Puerto Rico was granted the authority to draft its own constitution — a process that culminated in the creation of the Estado Libre Asociado, or the Free Associated State.
This new political structure provided Puerto Rico with a unique form of self-governance, allowing for the election of its own governor and legislative assembly.
However, the island remained subject to the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress, and its residents, while U.S. citizens, were not granted the right to vote in U.S. presidential elections and had limited representation in Congress.
The Commonwealth status was a product of multiple forces — an attempt by the United States to address international criticism of its colonial practices, particularly in the context of the emerging Cold War, and a response to the growing political activism within Puerto Rico itself.
For many Puerto Ricans, Commonwealth status was seen as a step towards greater self-determination — a way to preserve their cultural identity while maintaining a connection with the United States.
For others, it was an unsatisfactory compromise — a form of continued colonialism that fell short of full self-governance.
This period also saw the emergence of a robust political debate over the future of Puerto Rico’s status, with three main positions crystallising: statehood, independence, and the maintenance or enhancement of the existing Commonwealth arrangement.
Advocates of statehood argued for full integration into the United States as the 51st state, seeking equal rights and representation for Puerto Ricans within the American political system.
Proponents of independence sought a complete severance of political ties with the United States, envisioning a sovereign Puerto Rico with control over its own affairs.
The debate over Puerto Rico’s status was not just a political issue either — it was deeply intertwined with questions of identity, culture, and economic dependency.
The statehood movement, while advocating for equality and integration, faced concerns about the potential loss of Puerto Rican cultural identity and autonomy.
The independence movement, championing self-determination and national pride, grappled with concerns about Puerto Rico’s economic viability as a small island nation.
Throughout the latter half of the 20th century, these debates continued to evolve, shaped by changing political dynamics both in Puerto Rico and the United States.
Plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, 1998, 2012, and 2017 reflected the ongoing divisions among Puerto Ricans regarding their preferred political status.
Each of these votes revealed a deep ambivalence and a lack of consensus, with significant portions of the population supporting each of the main options.
As Puerto Rico entered the 21st century, these issues continued to remain at the forefront of its political discourse, with no clear resolution in sight.
Despite these challenges, Puerto Rico has maintained a vibrant cultural identity.
The island’s music, art, and literature, informed by its Taíno roots, Spanish colonial past, and the complexities of its relationship with the United States, remains a source of strength and unity for its people.
In recent decades, Puerto Rico has faced significant economic challenges too, with the phasing out of tax incentives for U.S. companies in Puerto Rico, coupled with a public debt crisis, leading to economic stagnation and austerity measures.
These economic struggles have again reignited the debate over Puerto Rico’s political status and its relationship with the United States.
All of which is to say that there remains very much more to come in Puerto Rico’s story too.
